Copyright & Intellectual Property Glossary

AES-256-CBC (Advanced Encryption Standard, 256-bit key, Cipher Block Chaining mode) is a symmetric encryption algorithm widely recognised as the global standard for securing data at rest. Copyright01 uses AES-256-CBC to encrypt deposited files before storing them. Only the platform can decrypt a file, ensuring that no one can access the original content without authorisation.

ANSSI (Agence Nationale de la Sécurité des Systèmes d'Information) is France's national cybersecurity authority. It publishes technical guidelines and certifies secure products and services, including qualified electronic signature and timestamping systems. ANSSI-compliant timestamping meets the highest standards for legal proof of prior existence under French and EU law.

"All rights reserved" is a copyright notice indicating that the rights holder retains all exclusive rights and grants no permissions beyond those mandated by applicable law (such as fair use or private copying exceptions). The phrase originated in the 1910 Buenos Aires Convention but is no longer legally required under the Berne Convention. It remains widely used as a clear signal of intent.

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Automatic protection is the first core principle of the Berne Convention. Copyright subsists in an original work from the moment of its creation, requiring no registration, deposit, payment or © symbol. This applies in all 181 member countries. The practical limitation of automatic protection is that it creates no evidence: if ownership is disputed, the author must produce independent proof that the work is theirs and when it was created.

A bailiff's report (constat d'huissier) is an official document drawn up by a court-appointed officer (huissier de justice in France) who formally records observed facts. In copyright disputes, it is commonly used to establish online infringement by documenting infringing content at a specific URL on a specific date. It carries strong evidential weight in French courts. Digital certificates with certified timestamps serve a similar function for prior authorship.

The Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, signed in 1886, is the cornerstone of international copyright law. Its three core principles are automatic protection (no registration required), national treatment (foreign authors receive the same rights as nationals) and a minimum protection duration of 50 years post-mortem. With 181 signatory countries, it covers virtually the entire world.

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A blockchain is a decentralised, append-only ledger of records secured by cryptography. Copyright01 uses the Polygon blockchain to anchor the SHA-256 fingerprint of each subscriber deposit via a public transaction. This provides an additional layer of timestamping proof, verifiable by anyone on Polygonscan, independent of Copyright01. Blockchain anchoring complements the existing SHA-256 fingerprint and does not replace a qualified eIDAS timestamp.

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The Buenos Aires Convention of 1910 was a copyright agreement among nations of the Americas that required authors to include the phrase "All rights reserved" to claim protection in member states. With all relevant countries now party to the Berne Convention, the Buenos Aires Convention is effectively obsolete. The phrase persists in common usage despite no longer being legally required.

The Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP), formerly the TPP, is a free trade agreement among 11 Pacific Rim countries. Its IP chapter includes provisions extending copyright terms, strengthening anti-circumvention rules and increasing enforcement obligations. Unlike the Berne Convention, the CPTPP is primarily a trade treaty and its IP rules are linked to market access commitments.

A cease and desist letter is a formal written notice from a rights holder (or their lawyer) demanding that the recipient stop an infringing activity. It typically identifies the protected work, describes the alleged infringement and sets a deadline for compliance. Sending a cease and desist letter establishes a formal record of the dispute and is often a prerequisite before taking legal action.

Civil law (droit civil) refers to the legal tradition originating in Roman law, codified in statutes and applied in France, Germany, Spain, Italy and most of continental Europe. In copyright, civil law systems place greater emphasis on moral rights, treating them as perpetual and inalienable personal rights of the author. This contrasts with common law systems, where moral rights are more limited and economic rights are more easily transferred.

Common law is the legal tradition developed in England and adopted in most English-speaking countries, including the US, Australia and Canada. It relies heavily on judicial precedent (case law) to interpret statutes. In copyright, common law systems tend to emphasise economic rights and allow more flexibility in the assignment and waiver of moral rights. This contrasts with the civil law approach found in France and most of continental Europe.

Copyleft is a licensing approach that uses copyright law to ensure that a work and all derivative works remain freely available under the same terms. The most prominent example is the GNU General Public License (GPL). If you modify and distribute a GPL-licensed work, you must release your modifications under the GPL as well. This "viral" property distinguishes copyleft licences from permissive open source licences like MIT or Apache 2.0.

Copyright is the body of law that grants authors exclusive rights over their original creative works. These rights arise automatically upon creation in all 181 Berne Convention countries, without any registration or formality. Copyright covers reproduction, adaptation, distribution, public performance and communication to the public. It expires after a fixed term (typically 70 years post-mortem in the EU and US), after which the work enters the public domain.

Copyright infringement occurs when someone reproduces, distributes, adapts or publicly communicates a protected work without the rights holder's authorisation and without a legal exception applying. It can be civil (giving rise to damages) or criminal (in serious cases). To succeed in an infringement action, the rights holder must prove ownership and demonstrate that the defendant copied their protected expression.

The © symbol (Unicode U+00A9) is a conventional notice indicating copyright protection. Under the Berne Convention, it is not required for protection to apply; copyright arises automatically. The symbol was historically mandatory in the United States and under the Universal Copyright Convention but has been optional since the US joined the Berne Convention in 1989. It remains useful as a visible deterrent and a clear statement of intent.

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Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organisation that provides a suite of standardised copyright licences. These licences allow creators to share their works while retaining certain rights. Options range from CC BY (attribution only) to CC BY-NC-ND (attribution, non-commercial, no derivatives). Creative Commons licences do not waive copyright; they pre-authorise specific uses on defined conditions, reducing transaction costs for sharing creative works.

The Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) is a US federal law enacted in 1998 that implemented the WIPO Internet Treaties. Its most widely known provision is the safe harbor for online platforms (Section 512), which shields providers from liability for user-uploaded content when they respond to takedown notices. The DMCA also prohibits circumvention of digital rights management (DRM) systems.

A Copyright01 digital certificate is a PDF document generated at the time of deposit. It records the SHA-256 fingerprint of the deposited file, a certified timestamp, a unique deposit identifier and a QR code linking to the online verification page. The certificate constitutes verifiable, tamper-evident proof that a specific version of a work existed at a specific date and time, and can be produced in legal proceedings.

A digital fingerprint is the output of a cryptographic hash function applied to a file. It acts as a compact, unique identifier for that exact version of the file. Two identical files produce identical fingerprints, while the smallest change produces a completely different result. Digital fingerprints are the technical foundation of proof-of-prior-existence systems, including Copyright01 certificates.

EU Directive 2006/116/EC harmonizes copyright duration across the European Union. It sets the standard term at 70 years after the author's death, exceeding the Berne Convention minimum of 50 years. The directive also covers related rights such as performers and producers of phonograms. It replaced earlier national legislation, ensuring consistent protection throughout the EU single market.

The European Union Intellectual Property Office (EUIPO) registers EU trademarks and registered designs with protection across all EU member states. Based in Alicante, Spain, EUIPO does not handle copyright, which remains automatic and does not require registration. It works alongside national IP offices for industrial property rights.

Economic rights (also called patrimonial rights) are the transferable component of copyright that allow an author to exploit their work commercially. They include the right to reproduce, distribute, adapt, translate and publicly communicate the work. Unlike moral rights, economic rights can be assigned, licensed or sold. They are time-limited, lasting for the duration of copyright protection before expiring into the public domain.

Encryption transforms readable data (plaintext) into an unreadable encoded form (ciphertext) using a cryptographic algorithm and key. Only the holder of the correct decryption key can recover the original data. Copyright01 encrypts deposited files using AES-256-CBC before storage, ensuring that confidential creative works remain private even if the storage infrastructure were compromised.

Enforceable proof (preuve opposable) is evidence that is legally admissible and can be relied upon against a third party, including in court. Not all forms of documentation qualify: a self-created, undated document carries little weight. Copyright01 certificates combine cryptographic fingerprinting, certified timestamping and a trusted third-party record to produce evidence that meets the standard for enforceable prior authorship proof.

The European Union has enacted several directives harmonizing copyright law across its 27 member states. Key examples include the 2006/116/EC Directive on copyright duration (70 years post-mortem) and the 2019 Digital Single Market Directive. EU copyright law applies uniformly, giving authors consistent protection across the bloc.

Evidential weight refers to the degree of persuasion a piece of evidence carries in legal proceedings. Different forms of evidence have different standing: a notarised document or qualified timestamp carries more weight than an unverified email. Copyright01 certificates combine a SHA-256 fingerprint, a certified timestamp and a unique identifier, giving them strong evidential weight in disputes over prior authorship.

eIDAS (Electronic Identification, Authentication and Trust Services) is an EU regulation (No 910/2014) that creates a legal framework for electronic signatures, seals and timestamps. Under eIDAS, a qualified electronic timestamp issued by an accredited trust service provider is legally equivalent to a certified date in court. This regulation underpins the legal value of digital timestamping for copyright proof in EU jurisdictions.

A free licence grants users broad freedoms to use, study, modify and distribute a work, often with minimal conditions such as attribution. The term covers both copyleft licences (GPL, AGPL) and permissive licences (MIT, BSD, Apache 2.0, Creative Commons BY). Free does not mean without copyright; the work remains protected, and the licence is the legal instrument through which permissions are granted.

HMAC (Hash-based Message Authentication Code) combines a cryptographic hash function with a secret key to produce an authentication tag. It guarantees that a piece of data has not been altered and that it was produced by a party holding the secret key. Copyright01 uses HMAC alongside AES-256-CBC to verify the integrity of encrypted files and detect any tampering.

The Institut National de la Propriété Industrielle (INPI) is the French body responsible for registering patents, trademarks, designs and geographical indications. It does not register copyright, which in France is automatic from the moment of creation. INPI also maintains the Soleau envelope service, a low-cost deposit mechanism for establishing prior authorship.

Intellectual property (IP) is an umbrella term for legal rights that protect creations of the human intellect. It encompasses copyright (original creative works), patents (inventions), trademarks (brand identifiers), designs (aesthetic appearance of products) and trade secrets. Each type of IP has different requirements, durations and scope. Copyright is unique in requiring no registration and arising automatically upon creation.

Moral rights are personal rights that protect the non-economic interests of an author. They include the right of attribution (to be named as the author), the right of integrity (to object to derogatory treatment of the work) and, in some jurisdictions, the right of disclosure (to decide when a work is made public). In France and most civil law countries, moral rights are perpetual and inalienable. Common law countries like the US and UK provide more limited moral rights.

National treatment is the second core principle of the Berne Convention. Each member country must grant authors from other member countries the same copyright protection it grants to its own nationals. A British author's work is therefore protected in Japan under Japanese law, in Brazil under Brazilian law, and so on across all 181 member states, without any additional formalities.

An online deposit is the process of submitting a file to a trusted third-party platform, which records the deposit with a cryptographic fingerprint and certified timestamp. It provides proof that a specific version of a work existed at a specific moment. Copyright01 accepts over 29 deposit types including text, images, music, video, code and documents. Deposits are processed in minutes and generate a downloadable PDF certificate.

Open source software is distributed with its source code under a licence that grants users the right to read, modify and redistribute it. Open source does not mean copyright-free. The code remains protected by copyright, and the licence terms govern permitted uses. Licences range from permissive (MIT, Apache 2.0) to copyleft (GPL), which requires derivative works to be distributed under the same terms.

For a work to qualify for copyright protection, it must be original in the legal sense. This does not require novelty (as in patent law) but means the work must reflect the author's own intellectual creation, involving personal choices and a degree of creative effort. A purely mechanical copy or a work that is entirely dictated by technical constraints may not meet this threshold. The originality bar varies by country but is generally low.

A patent is an IP right granted by a national patent office that gives the holder a temporary monopoly (typically 20 years) on the commercial use of a novel, non-obvious and industrially applicable invention. Unlike copyright, a patent must be actively applied for, examined and registered. It does not arise automatically. Patents protect functional inventions; copyright protects creative expression. They can coexist on the same product (for example, the software in a device).

Plagiarism is the act of using another person's intellectual work, whether text, images, code or ideas, and presenting it as one's own without attribution. It overlaps with copyright infringement when the copied material is protected, but they are distinct concepts: plagiarism can occur with public domain works, and copyright infringement can occur without plagiarism (for example when a derivative work is created without authorisation but with credit given). Plagiarism has ethical, academic and professional consequences beyond legal liability.

Post-mortem auctoris (p.m.a.) is the Latin term for the period after an author's death during which their copyright remains in force. The Berne Convention requires a minimum term of 50 years p.m.a., while the EU, US, Canada and Japan apply 70 years p.m.a. After this period, the work enters the public domain. The term runs from January 1 of the year following the author's death in most jurisdictions.

Proof of prior authorship (or proof of prior existence) is evidence that a specific work existed in a defined form before a given date. While copyright is automatic under the Berne Convention, it creates no proof. In a dispute over originality or ownership, the party who can demonstrate earlier existence has a decisive advantage. Copyright01 certificates provide this proof through SHA-256 fingerprinting and certified timestamping.

The public domain comprises works whose copyright protection has expired or was never applicable. Once a work enters the public domain, anyone can reproduce, adapt or distribute it without permission or payment. In most countries, works enter the public domain 70 years after the author's death. Publication online does not place a work in the public domain. Only the expiry of the legal protection term does.

A QR (Quick Response) code is a two-dimensional barcode that encodes data readable by a camera or scanner. On Copyright01 certificates, the QR code links directly to the online verification page for that deposit, allowing anyone to confirm the authenticity of a certificate by scanning it. This enables instant, tamper-evident verification without requiring access to a physical document.

A qualified timestamp is issued by a Qualified Trust Service Provider (QTSP) accredited under the eIDAS Regulation. It meets the highest technical and legal standards, using a certified clock synchronised to a national time authority. In EU jurisdictions, a qualified timestamp has the same legal evidential weight as a notarial date certification. Copyright01 timestamps meet eIDAS requirements.

Related rights (also called neighbouring rights or droits voisins) are rights granted to performers, producers of phonograms (sound recordings) and broadcasting organisations. They are related to, but distinct from, copyright. A musician performing a copyrighted song holds related rights in their performance. Related rights typically last 50 years from the date of performance or fixation, though many countries have extended this term.

The right of adaptation grants the author exclusive control over the transformation of their work into other forms: translations, dramatisations, film adaptations, arrangements of musical works, and other modifications. Creating a derivative work without the rights holder's authorisation constitutes infringement, regardless of the extent of transformation. The right of adaptation is separate from the right of reproduction and must be licensed independently.

The right of reproduction is the most fundamental economic right in copyright. It grants the author exclusive control over the copying of their work in any form, whether physical or digital, partial or complete, direct or indirect. Any reproduction without authorisation constitutes infringement unless a legal exception applies (such as private copying, research or education). The right of reproduction is the basis for most copyright licences.

SHA-256 (Secure Hash Algorithm 256-bit) is a cryptographic function that converts any file into a unique 64-character hexadecimal string. The same file always produces the same hash, and any modification to the file, even one character, produces a completely different hash. SHA-256 is used to verify file integrity and create verifiable proof that a specific version of a file existed at a given time.

The Soleau envelope is a physical deposit mechanism offered by INPI in France. The creator sends a sealed double envelope containing a copy of their work; INPI stamps one half with a date and returns it. It provides proof of prior existence for a limited period (initially 5 years, extendable to 10) and is affordable. However, it is limited to paper content, covers only France, and offers no online verification. Digital deposit services like Copyright01 provide broader and more robust protection.

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The TRIPS Agreement (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) is a WTO treaty from 1994 that establishes minimum IP protection standards for all 164 WTO members. For copyright, TRIPS incorporates Berne Convention obligations and notably recognises software and databases as copyrightable works. It also introduced enforcement obligations and dispute resolution mechanisms at the international level.

Timestamping is the process of cryptographically binding a date and time to a document or its fingerprint, creating verifiable proof that the document existed at that moment. A timestamp is typically issued by a trusted third party and cannot be altered retroactively. It is a key component of proof-of-prior-authorship and is used in copyright deposit services, electronic signatures and legal archiving.

A trademark is a distinctive sign, which may be a word, logo, colour, shape or combination, that identifies the commercial origin of goods or services. Trademarks must be registered with a national or regional IP office to obtain the strongest protection, though unregistered marks may have some protection through use. Unlike copyright, trademarks can be renewed indefinitely. They do not protect the creative content of a work, only its brand identity.

UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) promotes international cooperation in education, science and culture. In intellectual property, it administers the Universal Copyright Convention (UCC), an alternative treaty to the Berne Convention that was historically important for countries not yet party to Berne. Today, with near-universal Berne membership, the UCC's practical significance has diminished.

The United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) administers patents and trademarks in the United States. Copyright registration in the US is handled separately by the US Copyright Office (Library of Congress). While US copyright is automatic under the Berne Convention, registration with the Copyright Office is a prerequisite for filing a copyright infringement lawsuit in federal court.

The Universal Copyright Convention (UCC), adopted in Geneva in 1952 under UNESCO, was created as a simpler alternative to the Berne Convention for countries with different legal traditions, notably the United States. It introduced the © symbol as a mandatory notice to claim protection. Since the US joined the Berne Convention in 1989, the UCC has largely been superseded, though it remains formally in force.

WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization) is a United Nations agency based in Geneva. It administers 26 international IP treaties, including the Berne Convention. WIPO does not register copyrights, as those arise automatically under the Berne Convention, but it serves as the central authority for IP policy, dispute resolution and international coordination.

The World Trade Organization (WTO) governs international trade rules among its 164 member countries. Relevant to IP, it administers the TRIPS Agreement (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights), which sets minimum IP protection standards for all member states. TRIPS requires members to provide copyright protection equivalent to the Berne Convention.